For me Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 is another book which breaks my heart and makes me mad. Reading Harlem shortly after Rothstein’s The Color of Law was like reading a prequel to a guide of ‘how to treat black people as second-class citizens for centuries and keep getting away with it’ written and acted on by US government, many wealthy, powerful landowners, business owners and politicians, as well as by regular working class and poor people in the South and North.

Since colonial times Harlem had been a wealthy white farm area, allowing familiar names Delancey, Beekman, Bleeker, Riker, Colden and Hamilton to prosper. Developed very slowly. In the early 1800’s African-Americans lived in shantytowns in the Five Points section of Manhattan (now City Hall area). Drunks and prostitutes lived alongside families. Parents too poor to dress children for school! Church plays a large role in black life, and fortunately, Mother Zion is founded in 1796. The African Society of Mutual Relief, Abyssinian Baptist Church, and Phillips Church are founded in 1808; Bethel African Church in 1819. In 1820, The African Free School No. 2 is founded, and many prominent African-Americans educated here.

1873’s Civil Rights Act allowed African-Americans to vote!

“El train” finally reaches Harlem in 1880 to transport people from Westchester County to lower Manhattan. This caused a building frenzy in the area by many including Hammerstein, Morgenthau, and Belmont, as well as Metropolitan Life and Equitable Insurance companies, and anyone and their uncle who could put together some money to invest. Some sold their properties quickly for large returns. Eventually too much construction resulted in deflated housing prices. Poor Jews and Italians move in, followed by Puerto Ricans. Between 1890-1914, Harlem changes to a mostly poor black neighborhood.

Short of bad health, I believe the most catastrophic experience facing a family, is not having a decent income. To get that income, a member of the family must have a job that offers a living wage. Without that money, a family has few options of where to live, the quality of what they can purchase to feed, clothe, educate and provide for their children, and themselves. Without the basics of a safe home, healthy, nourishing food, and a strong education another generation of African-Americans is set up to fail. And that employment and economic deprivation happened again and again in the south and in the north keeping most African-Americans poor, uneducated, underfed, angry, and disenfranchised; and 2nd class citizens!

In general, white families didn’t fear black women as they did black men so it was easier for the women to get jobs as laundresses, chambermaids, housekeepers, and cooks in wealthy homes. Black men had to settle for the very lowest paying jobs. It was acceptable to pay blacks less than white employees. Married women had to work long hours because their husbands didn’t earn enough for them to stay home with their children. This was psychologically / emotionally damaging to black husbands and fathers. And the many single women living in New York added another stressful threat to married women.
African-Americans experienced more severe duress, poverty, hunger, illness and death due to discrimination and fear. Specifically, still births kept birth rate low, while TB and pneumonia killed adults. Quakers and abolitionists provided much needed social services to black communities, in the form of employment, temporary housing, food, day care and coal during winter.

A few hundred African-American men, were the exceptions who found work as clerks, actors, musicians, music teachers, servants, coachmen, footmen, waiters and small businessmen. Better jobs for some were as clergy, journalists, and merchants. Only 42 doctors, and 26 lawyers! These more successful people would often re-locate to better neighborhoods. Ironically, some of them were ashamed of poorer African-Americans.

William Lewis Bulkley is one major success story. Going from slave to janitor to cook, saving money to attend college, graduate, earn Ph.D., teaches, becomes 1st black principal of PS 80. Helped start NAACP, opened kindergarten so mothers could leave young children while they worked, lectured parents on sanitation, diet, and health. In 1903 Bulkley started an evening school teaching industry and commerce to many who never had opportunity to attend school! Promotes African-American employment in industrial jobs. He is only one of many African-American heroes who raised himself up so he could help his community.

In 1897, Victoria Matthews’ the White Rose Working Girls’ Home protects young black women from predatory men who tried to traffic the women as prostitutes. The Home offered classes, books, lectures, and domestic training to offer other options. Frances Kellor’s report on employment agencies’ policies of pushing African-American women into prostitution resulted in the creation of NYC’s Office of the Commission of Licenses in 1911. After hearing a lecture by Booker T. Washington, Mary White Ovington learns about the dreadful conditions in which many African-Americans are living. From 1904 to her death in 1951, Mary devotes her life to improving black lives!

In 1900’s, over 100,000 African-Americans move north to New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia and Illinois. Many prominent African-Americans came from the South! This huge increase in black population frightens many whites, resulting in more racism, and violence. Rights African-Americans fought for were now being walked back i.e. membership in white churches, in unions, eating in restaurants reduced! Lots of tension between Irish and African-American populations. Large race riots occur in 1900 resulting in white citizens and cops beating and arresting innocent blacks. Many whites labeled African-Americans with horrific names: ‘invaders, enemies, black hordes, and the black plague.’

New York City becomes philanthropic center for blacks. Booker T. Washington held large meetings to raise funds for African-American education. The Brooklyn Armstrong Association formed in 1906, Rockefeller’s Educational Board, and the Board of Trustees of Tuskegee, as well as individual wealthy New Yorkers contributed funds to educate African-Americans. Fraternities were formed to help African-Americans with insurance, and to start small businesses i.e. barbershops, restaurants, and saloons. Some of these businesses had a welcoming southern ambience.
Between 1920-1930, with over 73,000 African-American residents Harlem becomes a slum! Population continues to increase.

Blacks from West Indies form organizations to benefit themselves and not American blacks! They protested against racial slurs from whites. Herbert Harrison from the Virgin Islands, socialist, and militant critic of American society, vocally shared his pride in black history from street corners. Organized rent strikes, and lobbied for social legislation at City Hall. This population was Catholic and more family-oriented compared to mostly Protestant American blacks whose families had been separated or lost due to slavery and high death rate. Those from West Indies insisted on social improvements for blacks. American blacks compared them to ‘pushy Jews’ and saw them as agitators! The NAACP tried to control the prejudice and infighting between both groups. It takes the Depression to ‘resolve’ issue because West Indian population leave Harlem.

Harlem apartments were abominable with dark, dank hallways, roaches and rats running rampant. Renters sued landlords. Many of who had abandoned these buildings, and didn’t provide basic maintenance. Judges were shocked at horrific conditions resulting in a death rate 42% higher than the rest of the city! Gambling and prostitution proliferate. Poverty and hopelessness result in broken marriages: mothers busy working, not able to make sure children attend school. Neglected kids become delinquents, and addicted to drugs. Horrible situation that most whites knew little about. Whites believed or wanted to believe that African-Americans led happy-go-lucky lives enjoying music in cabarets and speakeasies! Some prominent white businessman did help African-Americans but most whites were not ready or willing to grasp the desperate need of this large disenfranchised population.

Politics helped some African-Americans progress to a degree. Most blacks were Republican. Republican and Democratic candidates offered blacks employment to get their votes. Some blacks became politicians. Charles Anderson works his way up Republican Party. Speaks well on a variety of subjects. Honest, courteous, and qualified. From job in IRS district office to Collector for IRS’s 2nd NY District, he provides jobs to Harlem residents as draftsmen, chauffeurs, deputy collectors, messengers, clerks, postal employees, US marshals, stenographers, assistant superintendents, and gets Sam Battle job as first black cop! Responsible for getting blacks the most jobs in government than anyone else! But…Woodrow Wilson on becoming 28th President allows his southern cabinet members the opportunity to repressively reduce African-American employment in government!

In 1920’s whites become interested in black culture, primarily spirituals and jazz. Whites who visit Harlem jazz clubs are ‘slumming it.’ Whites don’t want to know about the real issues facing Harlem. Not surprising that this ‘new’ age of black culture artists doesn’t stop the KKK from regaining strength! Depression in 1930’s saw whites and blacks suffering job loss, hunger, deprivation but African-American had been experiencing ‘depression’ for years and years with few people caring. Depression exacerbates egregious conditions.

Osofsky’s retrospect informs readers of the shocking fact that between 1800’s – 1960’s African-American life in New York City remained stagnant for the most part! And this happened in the most progressive state of the wealthiest country in the world! Shameful!!

Without real large-scale government help with housing, employment, food, and health services, the many churches, social service agencies, clubs, schools and caring individuals could not mitigate Harlem’s numerous problems. The population was overwhelming. Which is why it has remained a ghetto for too long.

Don’t people see that hate, racism, and prejudice are feelings that have resulted and continue to result in painful, dehumanizing, criminal behavior including murder against human beings. Are white people so arrogant as to believe that G-d created only them, not all humanity?

We should know by now that mistreating one group of people does not make life better for another group!