[Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Inquiry] by [[Bernard Lewis]] is a fast read at 99 pages of running text. The preface explains the origins of this work as "part of a group project on tolerance and intolerance in human societies," followed by acknowledgments. Given some of the dates in the preface, that initial effort probably occurred sometime in the 1960s; this volume was published in 1990.

The main text is divided into 14 chapters, followed by the endnotes, an appendix of samples of relevant documents arranged chronologically from the late tenth century to 1936, the list of sources for the 24 color plates in the center of the book, and finally the requisite index.

Lewis begins in chapter 1 by briefly examining slavery as an accepted part of societies going back to the oldest written documents, though often complemented by opposition to either particular inhumane practices or the entire concept by some groups and individuals. He then describes how Islamic Qur'anic and juridical traditions regulated the institution of slavery, and in the process, changed the premises that provided the legal foundations for slavery--i.e., the default "natural" state of humanity is free; therefore, enslavement is legal only when the person is captured in war or is the child of slaves. As a consequence, the relationship between master and slave became something of a social contract, albeit a vastly unequal one, that acknowledged the humanity of both parties (thus giving the slave some minimal human rights in the process).

Lewis then moves on to the profound economic drivers of the slave trade in Muslim cultures. Turnover among the lower caste slaves was high, thanks to the very high mortality caused by the hard labor and poor living conditions. And mortality was high across the board thanks to epidemics and lack of immunity to local pathogens in imported slaves (kinda like the inverse of the genocidal decimation of Native American populations as a result of colonization). A significant percentage of the higher caste slave population were eunuchs. And many of the higher caste slaves were freed fairly early in their careers, so that any children were also likely to be free. So slavery was an extremely high-input not-self-sustaining institution, thus creating an insatiable demand for imported slaves. Thus the lucrative slave trade that persisted well into the modern era, and continues largely underground.

The second chapter discusses race, recognizing that it is largely a modern concept, but seeking documentation of prejudice and general attitudes based on skin color. He points out that early authors tended to focus on the concept of ethnicity, which encompasses culture as much as phenotype. They clearly distinguished among different ethnic groups that could all be classified as black today. The Ethiopians were feared, admired, and respected at some point, while the Zanj were loathed and often described in subhuman terms. And yet, some notion of skin color being a defining attribute did begin to emerge as early as the seventh century: "the narrowing, specializing, and fixing of color terms applied to human beings." With this rigidity of nomenclature comes an intrinsically hierarchical classification, thus begetting an association between dark, and especially black, skin and bad or inferior or ugly human qualities.

It is truly dismaying to realize that some (many?) of our racist stereotypes go back more than 1000 years. Is this familiar: "They lack self-control and steadiness of mind and are overcome by fickleness, foolishness, and ignorance" (p. 48, quoting Sa'id al-Andalusi, 11 c.)? And does this sound like a well-known caricatures: "frizzy hair, thin eyebrows, broad nostrils, thick lips, pointed teeth, smelly skin, black eyes, furrowed hands and feet, a long penis, and great merriment" (p. 46, quoting Ibn Qutayba, 9 c.)? And still more: "Dancing and rhythm are instinctive and ingrained in them" (p. 92, a quote from Ibn Butlan, 11 c.).

Over the course of the chapters, Lewis discusses how perception, prejudice, and privilege play out in the differential treatment of slaves of different origins and colors, as well as social status among free members of society (non-Arab or only partial Arab heritage definitely resulted in second-class treatment). And how such tensions affected civil society, marriages, military organization (Janissaries!), playing an important role in both initiating and suppressing various uprisings.

He compares and contrasts slavery in Islamic cultures with that practiced until fairly recently in the United States (and other parts of the Americas). Both entailed some degree of propaganda rationalizing "white" supremacy over blacks who were naturally suited to be beasts of burden. (An interesting aside--the friend who loaned me the book took away the idea that everyone perceives themselves as white (i.e. the "norm"), so the Arabs considered northerners to be blue per some of the anecdotal quotes in the book.) At the same time, there were some notable differences. In some times and places, most if not all Muslim rulers were the offspring of slave women and royalty. In fact, it was not unusual for the birth of a son to lead to a concubine's manumission and conversion to wife. Key military and political and cultural leaders were slaves, former slaves, descended from slaves. Servant and master, free and slave, all tightly tangled together but openly acknowledged as family, complicated as so many families are. In the American South, the entanglements were just as commonplace, but unacknowledged, hidden, denied. Sally Hemings, anyone? Woe betide any person of black heritage caught passing as white. And I don't doubt that many miscegenation laws are still on the books today, so marrying a slave? Never. And our profound silence largely continues.

Lewis also makes the point that Islamic culture was one of the most cosmopolitan and diverse and to some degree tolerant, spanning three continents and incorporating and synthesizing many cultural elements, ideas, and peoples into a single religious society. Arabs were great explorers, with trade routes into Africa and to China. Thus they were also ethnographers, observing the cultures around them. Too often this was in the form of slave buyers and owners manuals, but also in the travelogues that were a popular genre of Arab literature.

He also discusses slavery in Islam in more recent times and the abolition movement that really began to make strides in the nineteenth century. While I can applaud the efforts of British (and American) abolitionist organizations, I can also appreciate a certain underlying societal hypocrisy of making a multigenerational profit on slavery and then turning around and pointing the finger at others. The wealth of western societies was built on slavery and profiteering that defined colonialism and imperialism, and the social inequalities resulting from that process and the prejudice involved persist, largely ignored or blamed on individual moral failings. But I digress.

Another extremely disheartening realization is that the practice of slavery isn't as historical as we would like to think. Sure, pundits and analysts like to throw the term around a lot, and there is merit to the concept of "wage slavery." The most recent document in the appendix dates to 1936, and is a list of regulations of the slave trade in Saudi Arabia. So human trafficking was openly practiced in Saudi Arabia well into the 1930s, which meant that it was probably even more widespread in areas remote from government oversight. Indeed, the ancient slave trade routes that once supplied Islamic states have been revived. Many of the consumer products imported to American markets probably involved some form of slavery or indentured labor, and there are plenty of people exploited illegally within our borders. The U.S. State Department's 2011 Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report includes 184 countries. Indeed, some current statistics indicate that the number of people enslaved today exceed historical numbers, reflecting our much larger global population.

To sum up, this book is a very accessible look at a challenging subject that is rarely the subject of academic scrutiny or public discourse. While it is a historical study, it inevitably leads to reflection on modern events, which are inevitably shaped by the past. It cleared up some misperceptions on my part and expanded my understanding of medieval culture. I'll probably get my own copy. ( )